BUDDHA'S TEACHINGS

Sravakayana, Mahayana and Vajrayana
The first discourse delivered by Buddha is the famous “Dharmachakra Pravatana Sutra”. The discourse was on Sarvakayana. Sravakayana is the vehicle of the Buddhists who wish to attain Arhathood being freed from the bondage Samsara. In Sravakayana, Bhikshus reside in Vihars and meditate. Also in Pratyeka Buddhayana, Bhikshus meditate in Vihars separately to attain personal salvation. The intention of both is the same.

When The Buddha introduce the profound doctrine of Sunyata (emptiness) and the path of Bodhisattva in his second and third religious sermons at Rajgrha and Dhanyakatak respectively, the doctrine established as the Mahayana and Vajrayana, which focus a wider vision of path and goal. Mahayana is the compassionate way to strive the liberation with diligence to facilitate the enlightenment of all living beings. The instructions on Mahayana and Vajrayana were delivered to the people considering their intellectual ability and circumstances. Hence, from perspective of Mahayana, both the Sravakayana and the Pratyeka Buddhayana become known as the Hinayana, the small vehicle.

Sravakayana teachings
The Dharmachakra Pravartanasutra opens with the statement that one should avoid the two extremes, one being the life of a worldly man, performing rituals and ceremonies but at the same time immersed in pleasures and the other the life of a recluse dedicated to self mortification. He is to choose a middle path, ‘Madhyam Märga’ which will open up the eyes of knowledge and lead a person to the peaceful state and ultimately to enlightenment and Nirväna (final emancipation). A moderate form of asceticism was approved by Buddha, but it was not made compulsory for all of his disciples. Rejecting the two extreme forms of practices, he recommended that his disciples should have just enough food, clothing and a shelter to maintain their physical strength. For guidance he laid down elaborate rules codified in the pratimokshya Sutra. Whole Buddhist monastic system is based on this Sutra. He has taught middle path for his monk-disciples in the form of ärya astängika märga (eight-fold path).

Sammä väcä Right Speech (Refraining from speaking falsehood, malicious words, harsh and frivolous talk.)
Sila Sammäkamanto Right deeds refraining from killing, stealing and sexual misconduct
Sammääjivo Right livelihood refraining from earning livelihood by improper means

Sammäväyämo Right exertion exertion to remove the existing evil thoughts, to put mind away from pollution and to preserve and increase the good thoughts.
Samädhi Sammäsati Right mindfulness mind fullness of all that is happening within the body and mind including feelings, and observant of things of the world and at the same time suppressing covetousness and avoiding mental depression.
Sammäsamädhi Right meditation To keep mind concentrated, subtle and sensitive

Paññä Sammäsankappa Right resolution resolution for renunciation, and resolution for refraining form hatred and injury to other beings.
Sammä ditthi Right view Realization of the truth that worldly existence is misery, root of such misery, end of such misery and the path leading to the end of such misery. It is to develop the right vision of the reality of the world i.e. Anitya, dukkha and Änatma (impermanence, suffering and soullessness)
The eight-fold path, as stated above, deals with all the aspects of a spiritual life, viz., ethical, psychological and epistemological. The first three are relating to rules, which are direction for the proper conduct. The next three depict the gradual way in which an adept should train up his thoughts and elevate the mind through process of concentration to a state of equanimity so that it may remain undisturbed. After establishing oneself in physical and mental discipline, the adept can expect of develop a mind of complete renunciation of worldly attractions and direct his mind to the comprehension of the four noble truths.

Catuaryasatya (Four noble truths)
The second part of the “Dharmachakra Pravartana Sutra” offers a popular exposition of the four noble truths. It is as follows:
The first truth dukkha sacca : Life is suffering.
The second truth dukkhasamudaya sacca (origin of suffering): All suffering is caused by ignorance of the ultimate reality of the whole existence. This ignorance leads a being to craving, attachment, and grasping for worldly objects. Any one of such thirst, associated with pleasure and attachment leads to rebirth. (Ref. Pratityasamudpada theory)
The third truth dukkhanirodha sacca (Cessation of suffering): It explains the state of complete liberation Nibbana.
The fourth truth dukkha-nirodhä-gämini-patipadä sacca (the path leading to the cessation of suffering): the Noble Eight fold Path (as already explained above).

The law of causation
(Paticcasamuppäda=sankr. Pratityasamudpada)
The law of causation is regarded as one of the fundamental teachings of Buddhism, which is an elaboration for second noble truth. It explains a causal nexus in the direct order, which explains how beings of the world originated and became subject to sufferings on account of impermanence. And again how by elimination of each of the causal nexus, the repeated existences of a being and its consequent sufferings could brought to an end leading to attainment of Nibbäna. This law established the fact that repeated existences of a being depends on certain causes (hetu) and effect (pratyaya). It states that the entire phenomenal world originated and decayed under the inexorable law of cause and effect, which is operated in a being every moment. So every worldly being is momentary. Any worldly object is in a state of continuous flux., Again in one moment, which is almost inconceivable, there are three subdivisions, viz., origin (utpatti), continuity (Sthiti) and decay (vyaya), hence it can well be imagined how quickly and incessantly this change takes place and this constant change clearly proves that there is nothing in it which could be grasped as an eternal substance. By this realization, a being gets rid of all worldly attachments and its mind becomes completely emancipated and remains no more subject to rebirth. It then reaches the state called Nibbäna, which is absolutely uncaused and unconditioned, comparable only to Äkäsa (open space). As Äkäsa is obtained not by any exertion, but by the removal of all obstructions, Nirvana is not a state to be attained, but appears automatically to a person who is able to disabuse his mind of all false notions by comprehending the law of causation. It make one realize the truth that the worldly objects are nothing more than a chaff or mirage, evanescent and absolutely devoid of any substance.

The twelve-link formula for the cause of suffering follows as:
All worldly misery is caused by birth (Jati), (Jati) is caused by desire for re-existence (bhava), bhava is caused by strong attachment (upädän), upädän is caused by thirst (trisnä), trisnä is caused by feeling sensation (vedanä), vedanä is caused by contact (sparsa), sparsa is caused by six sense organs (sadäyatana), sadäyatana is caused by body and mind (nämarupa), nämarupa is caused by consciousness (vijñäna), is caused by impressions (Samskära), Samskära is caused by ignorance (avidyä). (see fig )

Avidyä primarily means non- realization of the ultimate truth. Such non-realization of the fundamental principles of Buddhism causes delusion (moha), which produces in its turn craving (räga) and aversion (dvesa), the three stumbling blocks in the life of a human being and the causes of all his sufferings. Avidyä should not be regarded as mere absence of knowledge, but should be taken to mean impurities like craving, aversion and delusion which are positive factors causing Samskära. If one can get rid of avidyä, one can stop making Samskära, by cessation of Samskära, vijñäna start to vanish, and consequently there will be no cause of rebirth, which ultimately the end of all the misery.
Based on this doctrine of pratityasamudpada, or dependent origination the Buddha realized ultimate characters of all existence is Anitya (impermanence), and dukkha (suffering), anatman (no soul).
(Anitya) Impermanent: - any worldly object is in a state of continuous flux.
(Dukkha) Misery: - not realizing the truth of impermanence, beings create Karma chain.
(Anätma) Non-soulness: - there is no sixth constituents as soul in a being besides of five aggregates or “bundles” (skandhas): the material body (rupa = combination of four element earth, fire, air and water), feelings (vedana), perceptions (Sangya), predispositions or karmic tendencies (sanskara), and consciousness (vigyan). A person is a mere temporary combination of these aggregates, which are subject to continual change. No one remains the same for any two consecutive moments. Buddhists deny that the aggregates individually or in combination may be considered a permanent, independently existing self or soul (Ätman). Indeed, they regard it as a mistake to conceive of any lasting unity behind the elements that constitute an individual. The Buddha held that belief in such a self results in egoism, craving, and hence in suffering. Thus he taught the doctrine of anatman, or the denial of a permanent soul.

BUDDHA'S LIFE

Buddha's Life
Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, was born in Lumbini in 563 BC as the son of the ruler of a petty kingdom. According to legend, at his birth, sages recognized in him the marks of a great man with the potential to become either a sage or the ruler of an empire. The young prince was raised in sheltered luxury, until at the age of 29. He realized how empty his life to this point had been. Renouncing all earthly attachments, he embarked on a quest for peace and enlightenment, seeking for release from the cycle of rebirths, seeking path to get rid of all the sufferings. For the next few years he practiced Yoga and adopted a life of radical asceticism.
Eventually he gave up this approach as fruitless and instead adopted a middle path between the life of indulgence and that of self-denial. Sitting under the Bodhi tree, he meditated, rising through a series of higher states of consciousness until he attained the enlightenment for which he had been searching. Once having known this ultimate truth, the Buddha began to preach, wandering from place to place, gathering a body of disciples, and organizing them into a monastic community known as the sangha. In this way he spent 45 years just sharing the Dhamma.

BUDDHISM

Buddhism is a major world religion, founded in northeastern Indian subcontinent and based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, who is known as the Buddha ‘The Enlightened One’.
Originating as a monastic movement within the dominant Brahman tradition of the day, Buddhism quickly developed in a distinctive direction. The Buddha not only rejected significant aspects of Hindu philosophy, but also challenged the authority of the priesthood, denied the validity of the Vedic scriptures, and rejected the sacrificial cult based on them. Moreover, he opened his movement to members of all castes, denying that a person's spiritual worth is a matter of birth.

Buddhism today is divided into two major branches known to their respective followers as Theravada, the Way of the Elders, and Mahayana, the Great Vehicle. Followers of Buddhism has been significant not only in Nepal and India but also in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar and Laos, where Theravada has been dominant; Mahayana has had its greatest impact in China, Japan, Taiwan, Tibet, Nepal, Mongolia, Korea, and Vietnam, as well as in India. The number of Buddhists worldwide has been estimated at between 150 and 300 million.

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NEWAR BUDDHISM

Buddhist architecture
Buddhism was a social revolution against the existing complex approaches to religion and caste system. But later it became a religion and established their one style of architecture confirming to their philosophical symbolism. As the Buddhist philosophy is different from any other religion, Buddhist architecture also holds some distinct features. As Buddha has chose simplest form of life for the practitioners, the origin of the architecture was also started from the simplest form. And later through evolution, different types and style has been evolved with the blend in region and society. Although the basic philosophy is constant, the way of practice flourished in different ways in different regions. Regionalism holds a great importance in the development of Buddhist architecture. Hence we have Indian, Nepalese, Indonesian, Japanese, Tibetan, Burmese etc. But we can trace the common elements and form in all these regional styles. The building types of Buddhist architecture can be classified into four major categories.
· Stupa
· Monasteries
· Caitya halls and Temples
· Stambha

Stupa
The tradition of making humble earth mounds piled over the relics and ancient treasures to mark a sacred site was later converted into monumental Buddhist edifice. The word ‘thube’ in Mägadhi languages of those days is very common in Pali texts which implies simply a earth mound, which later get pronounced as Thuba –Thura[i] - thupe – thupa – Stupa. This tradition was not only of Buddhist’s, it did exist prior to Buddha.

Stupa is the form, derived from the basic purest geometrical form, Circle. In light of lots of significance of circle in the symbolism of Buddhist philosophy, the circular plan of the Stupa symbolizes the wheel, both wheel of becoming and wheel of Dharma; Mandala; rites of endless circumambulation. Similarly the dome represent the womb, the earth, the mountain etc. Harmika stands for the high altar, railing for the vrksa Caitya, Bodhimanda, mountain summit etc. spire symbolize Ascension, the stairways, world tree etc. And pinnacle represents the vase, the jewel, and the final enlightenment. Stupa form also represents the Buddha body and sometimes the Dharma.

Stupa is the symbolic representation of whole Buddhist philosophy and Buddhist way. Hence the form got such popularity that it became the hallmark of Buddhism.
The function of the Stupa can be generalized in three points:
· The Stupa as reliquary
· The Stupa as memorial
· The Stupa as votive offering

Although the original form of Stupa was derived from the purest form, later the semi pure form were also associated with the original to support more symbolism.
[i] Four thura (Asoka stupa)of the Patan